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Isaiah Berlin: An Introduction
The century that opened with rediscoveries of Gregor Mendel's studies on patterns of inheritance in peas closed with a research project in molecular biology heralded as the initial and necessary step for attaining a complete understanding of the hereditary nature of humankind.
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Although originating and centered in the U. The official date of completion was timed to coincide with celebrations of the 50 th anniversary of James D. On 12 Aprilheads of government of the six countries which contributed to the sequencing efforts the U. Philosophical interest in the HGP centers on claims and hopes of this sort and raises a number of questions: How can DNA sequence information provide foundations for scientific and medical knowledge? Who will have access to the potential benefits arising from this research, and will such benefits be justly distributed? What possible harms lie ahead? This article provides a brief history of the HGP and discusses a range of associated issues that gained the attention of philosophers during the project's planning stages and as it unfolded.
Prominent among philosophical concerns are the conceptual foundations of the project and its ethical implications. The HGP began officially in Octoberbut its origins go back earlier. Such a project had become technically feasible due to advances made during the previous decade or two: in the early s, recombinant DNA technologies use of restriction enzymes to splice DNA, reverse transcriptase to make DNA from RNA, viral vectors to carry bits of DNA into cells, bacterial cloning to multiply quantities of See more ; Analysis Of Isaiah Berlin s Two Concepts the late s, DNA sequencing and use of RFLP restriction fragment length polymorphism markers for gene mapping; and in the early to mids, DNA synthesis, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, polymerase chain reaction PCRand automated DNA sequencing.
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However, many molecular biologists expressed misgivings. Both committees released reports in James Wyngaarden, head of the NIH, Analysis Of Isaiah Berlin s Two Concepts persuaded to lend his agency's support to the project in During andWatson expanded the grants-based program to fund seven genome centers for five-year periods to work on large-scale mapping projects: Washington University, St. As the HGP got underway, a number of philosophers weighed in on its scientific merit—in terms of cost, potential impact on other areas of research, ability to lead to medical cures, and the usefulness of sequence data Kitcher ; Rosenberg ; Tauber and Sarkar ; Vicedo However, of particular interest to philosophers is goal v concerning ethical, legal, and social issues. At an October news conference Berin to announce his appointment, Watson, in an apparently off-the-cuff response to a reporter who asked about the social implications of the project, promised that a portion of the funding would be set aside to study such issues Marshall c.
As the NRC report had recommended, priority at the outset of the project was given to mapping rather than sequencing the human genome. HGP Analgsis sought to construct two kinds of maps. Genetic maps order polymorphic markers linearly on chromosomes; the aim is to have these markers densely enough situated that linkage relations can be used to locate chromosomal regions containing genes of interest to researchers.
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HGP goals were facilitated by a number of technological developments during this initial period. For physical mapping, yeast artificial chromosomes YACs introduced in Burke et al.
A new class of genetic markers, microsatellite repeats, was identified in Litt and Luty ; Tautz ; Weber and May ; because these sets of tandem repeats of short either dinucleotide, trinucleotide, or tetranucleotide DNA sequences are more highly polymorphic and detectable by PCR, microsatellites quickly replaced RFLPs as markers of choice for genetic linkage mapping and furnished the STS markers which facilitated the integration of genetic and physical maps. Another technological achievement—the combined use of reverse transcription, PCR, and automated sequencing to map expressed genes—led to administrative changes at the NIH when, in AprilWatson resigned from his position as director of the NCHGR following a conflict with NIH director Bernadine Healy over gene patenting. Inwhile working at the NIH, J. Craig Venter sequenced small Analysis Of Isaiah Berlin s Two Concepts of cDNAs from existing libraries to provide identifying expressed The Analysis tags ESTs of — bases which he then compared to already identified genes from various species found in existing databases Adams et al.
Francis Collins, an MD-PhD whose lab at University of Michigan co-discovered genes associated with cystic fibrosis and neurofibromatosis and contributed to efforts to isolate the gene for Huntington's disease, was appointed by Healy as Watson's replacement, and he began at the NCHGR in April ]
Yes, really. So happens.